1.2 The Universal Hero

Greece

Plautus' Amphitryon (p. 22)

The Roman comic playwright Titus Maccius Plautus was born around 253 BC. His comedies were firmly set in the ‘real’ human realm, focusing on human relationships. His play Amphitryon represents the only deviation from this ‘real’ sphere by focusing on the birth of Hercules. Remember this is a Roman source, not Greek.

Synopsis: Mercury begins with a prologue. This discusses the nature of the play and how the crowd in the theatre should react. Unlike tragedy, which challenges the audience on an intellectual level, comedy directly interacts with the crowd. From the beginning of the play Mercury addresses the audience, informing them of who he is and why he is there. Mercury explains that Amphitryon, king of Thebes, was away fighting in a war having left his pregnant wife Alcmene at home. He then explains that while he was away, Jupiter took a fancy to Alcmene and tricked his way into her bed by taking the form of Amphityron. To help the scheme, Mercury took the form of Sosia, Amphitryon’s slave. Mercury ends his prologue explaining that this was the day of Amphitryon’s return from war.

The main part of the play is a catalogue of deception, trickery and confusion as characters meet both the original Amphitryon and Sosia as well as Jupiter and Mercury in their forms. The play concludes with the birth of Hercules and strangling of the snakes, reported by the maid Bromia. In the final scene, Bromia reports that Jupiter announced he was Hercules’ father. Discovering this, Amphitryon’s rage subsides and he is honoured to share a son with the king of the gods.      

Click here to read Plautus’ Amphitryon. 

Euripides' Heracles (p. 24)

Around 416 BC the Greek tragic playwright Euripides wrote Heracles. The play represents a different version of the Heracles myth in which his family are still alive while he completes his labours. It is not until he returns that he kills his family. 

Synopsis: The play begins with Heracles away completing his twelfth labour: the capturing of Cerberus. While away, a tyrant called Lycus arrives in Thebes and kills King Creon and threatens to kill Heracles’ wife Megara, his father Amphitryon and Heracles’ children. They flee in fear to the sanctuary of Zeus Soter (the Saviour). Just as they are being removed from the sanctuary, Heracles returns from Hades and kills Lycus. At this point Hera sends Iris and Lyssa to instil madness in Heracles. Once driven to madness, Heracles kills his wife and children, sparing only his father. Heracles’ madness then subsides and Amphitryon tells Heracles what he has done. Heracles is then driven into utter depression. At this point the Athenian hero Theseus arrives and comforts Heracles. Theseus immediately lays blame with Hera, not Heracles, and acts as a friend to him. At this point the audience is presented with a deep discussion between the two heroes in which Heracles acts in a way not seen previously: as an emotionally broken man. It takes much goading from Theseus to bring Heracles around and even at the end of the play Heracles remains broken. The close of the play highlights the Greeks' ideas on death, burial and pollution. As a murderer Heracles cannot remain in Thebes since no sanctuary would accept him. He frequently reminds Theseus not to touch him lest he pollute himself. Theseus places friendship above this and offers Heracles sanctuary with him in Athens, although he demands that Heracles cease his womanly crying and remember his heroic labours before they leave.

Click here to read Euripides’ Heracles. The discussion between Heracles and Theseus takes place in lines 815-1177.

Metopes of the twelve labours of Heracles (p. 24-30)

The labours of Heracles were used for the eastern and western metopes of the temple of Zeus at Olympia. The metopes were above the inner columns of the pronaos and so would not have been visible unless you stood between the external columns. Today many of the metopes are heavily fragmented and reconstructions have been suggested by archaeologists. Click here to see those reconstructions compared to the existing metopes. Note that the original metope of the Augean stables has been reversed on this site.

The metopes showing the labours of Heracles were not widely written about during ancient times. One of the best records comes from Pausanias during the 2nd century AD, around 500 years after the temple was originally constructed. Click here to read it (Pausanias, Description of Greece 5.10.9).

The Lernaean Hydra (p. 25)

The hydra myth provides a good example of the oral transmission of myths. As they were passed from one person to another, from one generation to the next, variations occurred. Click here for a collection of ancient sources on the hydra.

The Augean Stables (p. 27)

Heracles’ cleaning of the Augean stables did not have a happy ending for the King of Elis. Click here to read what Pausanias recounts about the event. Remember Pausanias is writing this account 900 year after it happened, if it event happened at all! (Pausanius’ Description of Greece, 5.1.9 -5.3.1)

Olympian Odes on Heracles

In the late 6th/early 5th century BC, Pindar was commissioned to write a series of victory odes for Olympic winners. In his poems, Pindar sought to honour Zeus by likening the victors to heroes and other great men. In poem 10 he discusses Heracles and his role as founder of the Olympics. Click here to read about it (Pindar, Olympian Odes 10.44-59).

Rome

The Aeneid, Book 8 (p. 35-8)

Book 8 of the Aeneid was important to its contemporary Roman audience as it describes the point when Aeneas, their legendary founder (see p. 77 of the textbook for more detail), visited the site that would later become Rome. At this point it was called Pallanteum, a Greek city founded by Evander from Arcadia (a region in the centre of the Peloponnese).

Click here for a synopsis and analysis of Book 8. Click here for the whole of Book 8. Remember that only lines 175-279 are part of the prescribed source material.

The Forum Boarium (p. 37-8, Fig. 1.22)

The Forum Boarium is a feature of the Hercules myth. Although it no longer survives, the Great Altar of Hercules was also situated here, built by King Evander after Hercules killed the monster Cacus. The altar survived until the 2nd century AD, however its location is now unknown. In the late 2nd century BC (roughly 1,000 years after Evander built the altar), a temple to Hercules was built in the forum. Click here for a detailed report on the Forum Boarium.

The Forum Boarium is discussed in more detail on p. 61-2 of the textbook.

Ovid's Metamorphosis (p. 38-41)

Ovid’s Metamorphosis is one of the most complete known collections of classical mythology. The work begins with the creation of the world and moves through to the death of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. Ovid clearly draws much of his material from existing myths of the Greek and Roman world and unites them into one body of text, although different episodes exist in isolation. As the title suggests, transformation is a key theme of the work, however love is another important theme that features throughout.

Click here for a synopsis and analysis of Book 9. Click here for the whole of Book 9. Remember that only lines 175-279 are part of the prescribed source material. Click here for a discussion of the Metamorphosis from the BBC Radio 4 programme In Our Time.

Hercules and Nessus (p. 41-1)

Hercules’ battle with Nessus involved his wife Deianira. Click here for more information on Deianira.

Comparing Greece and Rome

Heroism

What did it mean to be a classical hero? Click here for a discussion from the BBC Radio 4 programme In Our Time for a discussion of this and a comparison between Greek and Roman ideas of the hero.