Table 3.5 Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
Psychologist Erik Erikson conceptualized development through the life-span in terms of a series of conflicts or crises that the individual must resolve. Successful resolution of one stage was necessary to achieve subsequent stages of development. The first five stages are summarized in the table below as they relate to identity:
Stage
Description
Trust versus mistrust (infants)
In this stage, the child’s primary caregivers are critical. If children receive dependable, consistent and loving care, it allows them to see the world is a safe place. They learn to trust themselves and others. If one’s parents or caregivers are unreliable or inconsistent, they have difficulty trusting others and feel frustrated that their needs are not met.
Autonomy verses shame and doubt (toddlers)
Offering choices and opportunities to be independent and make decisions is seen to be important in this stage so children can develop a sense of themselves as autonomous individuals. If children are not supported in being independent, they may experience shame and self-doubt which can affect their views of self.
Initiative versus guilt (preschoolers)
Children begin to learn more about who they are and imitate adults, especially in their independent play. Children are seen to be developing a sense of responsibility and pride in accomplishments and they work to meet goals. If they are unable to take initiative, Erikson believed they would experience feelings of guilt.
Industry versus Inferiority (middle childhood)
Building on the third stage, at this stage children are seen to be industrious and carry out tasks or projects to completion. When children are supported in their industry, they gain a sense of efficacy which contributes to their positive identity development.
Identity versus Role Confusion (adolescence)
In this stage, teenagers are deeply engaged with the task of discovering who they are. If this conflict is not resolved, it can lead to role confusion.
Since this theory, like many developmental theories, was based on research with white middle-class children, mainly boys, critics have raised concerns that Erikson’s work does not apply to culturally diverse children. Families socialize children in accordance with the values and beliefs of their culture and community. For example, while autonomy is highly valued in dominant Euro-North American culture, it is not a priority in many cultural contexts. Erikson conceives of these as stages that the child achieves at specific ages, which is a model that positions children as being biologically determined. It does not allow for individual developmental variations or account for contextual variations in the environment in which the child is being raised.
Nsamenang argues that children have the right to a cultural identity. What implications does this have for teachers? How might teachers and the school community support this right?
