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Chapter 1: Teaching as a Profession

Glossary of Key Terms

American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) A national organization representing colleges and universities with teacher preparation programs. AACTE advocates for quality teacher education and provides resources and support to institutions that prepare educators.

American Federation of Teachers (AFT) One of the two largest teacher unions in the United States, claiming 1.8 million members as of 2024. The AFT advocates for teachers through collective bargaining, professional development, and educational policy reform.

A Nation at Risk A 1983 report by the National Commission on Excellence in Education that warned of a "rising tide of mediocrity" in American schools. The report significantly influenced education reform efforts and increased focus on accountability and standards.

Arts (or humanities) and sciences Academic disciplines traditionally considered foundational to liberal education, including literature, history, philosophy, mathematics, natural sciences, and social sciences. These form the core knowledge base from which teacher education draws.

Campbell's Law Named after social scientist Donald T. Campbell, this principle states that the more a society relies on a specific numerical measure to make important decisions, the more likely that measure will distort the very processes it was originally intended to assess. Highly relevant to debates about standardized testing and teacher evaluation.

Career and technical education (CTE) Educational programs that prepare students for specific careers through practical skills training and technical knowledge. CTE is one of the areas experiencing significant teacher shortages.

Carnegie Corporation A philanthropic foundation established by Andrew Carnegie that has historically invested in educational reform and teacher preparation initiatives.

Classical tradition An educational approach emphasizing the study of Greek and Roman literature, languages, philosophy, and culture. Historically influenced curriculum development in Western education.

Collective bargaining The process through which teacher unions negotiate with employers (school districts) over wages, working conditions, benefits, and other employment terms. A primary function of teacher unions but also a source of controversy.

Common school movement A 19th-century education reform movement, led by figures like Horace Mann, that advocated for free, universal, publicly-funded elementary education for all children regardless of social class.

Critical pedagogy An educational philosophy and teaching approach that encourages students to question and challenge dominant beliefs, social structures, and power relationships. Associated with scholars like Paulo Freire and Henry Giroux, it emphasizes education as a tool for social transformation and democratic citizenship.

Deskill The process of reducing the knowledge, expertise, and professional judgment required to perform work, often through standardization and scripting. Critics argue that scripted curricula attempt to deskill teaching by limiting teachers' autonomy and professional decision-making.

Grow-Your-Own (GYO) programs Teacher preparation programs that recruit prospective teachers from local communities—such as paraprofessionals, high school graduates, or career changers—and support them in earning their teaching credentials while working in schools. These programs aim to increase teacher diversity and retention by developing educators already connected to the communities they serve.

Holmes Partnership An organization of education schools, school districts, and professional organizations dedicated to improving teacher education through stronger partnerships between universities and K-12 schools.

Holmes Scholars Program A program within the Holmes Partnership designed to increase diversity in the teaching profession by supporting doctoral students of color who are committed to education equity and reform.

Learned professions Occupations characterized by specialized knowledge, extensive training, ethical conduct, social status, appropriate rewards, and a degree of autonomous control over one's work. Traditionally includes medicine, law, and the clergy; teaching has long aspired to similar recognition.

Liberal arts A broad curriculum including humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and mathematics designed to develop general intellectual capacities rather than specific vocational skills. Historically forms the foundation of teacher education.

Liberal education An educational approach emphasizing broad knowledge, critical thinking, ethical reasoning, and civic responsibility rather than narrow vocational training. Considered important preparation for professional educators.

McCarthyism The practice of making accusations of subversion or treason without proper evidence, named after Senator Joseph McCarthy. In the 1950s, teachers and other public employees faced loyalty oaths and investigations, which had lasting effects on academic freedom and teacher autonomy.

Merit pay Also called "pay for performance," a compensation system that provides temporary or permanent salary increases based on measures of teacher effectiveness, typically students' standardized test scores. Research on its effectiveness is mixed, and it raises concerns about teaching to the test and discouraging work in challenging schools.

Moral rewards As defined by education scholar Doris Santoro, the fulfillment teachers experience when they feel they are "doing what is right in terms of their students, the profession, and themselves." Contemporary accountability measures and standardized curricula have been criticized for reducing teachers' access to these intrinsic rewards.

Mystification of knowledge The practice of making specialized knowledge appear inaccessible to non-experts, thereby maintaining professional authority and social distance. Gary Fenstermacher argues that unlike physicians or lawyers who mystify their knowledge, teachers strive to give away their knowledge to students.

National Board Certification (NBC) An advanced voluntary certification for experienced teachers that demonstrates accomplished teaching practice. Administered by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS), it involves rigorous performance-based assessment.

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) An independent organization established in 1987 that sets high standards for accomplished teaching and offers advanced certification for teachers who meet these standards through rigorous assessment.

National Education Association (NEA) The largest teacher union in the United States, claiming over 3 million members as of 2024. The NEA advocates for public education, teachers' rights, and educational improvement through research, publications, professional development, and collective bargaining.

New England Primer A textbook used in colonial America and the early United States for teaching reading and religious values. It represents the intersection of literacy education and moral/religious instruction in early American schooling.

No Child Left Behind Act Federal legislation passed in 2002 that significantly increased federal involvement in education through standardized testing requirements, accountability measures, and sanctions for underperforming schools. Often associated with the standards, assessment, and accountability movement.

Normal school Institutions established in the 19th and early 20th centuries specifically for training teachers. These eventually evolved into state teachers colleges and were eventually absorbed into comprehensive universities. The term "normal" derives from establishing teaching "norms" or standards.

Petty Schools The most common form of elementary education in colonial America, teaching the rudiments of reading, writing, and arithmetic, usually with a strong religious emphasis. These schools were typically located in substantial villages or towns and most depended on tuition payments, though some received public funding. They primarily served families who could afford to pay.

Profession An occupation characterized by specialized knowledge, formal training, ethical standards, social recognition, and a degree of autonomy. The term can have multiple meanings, from simply working for pay to membership in a learned profession with rigorous preparation and ethical obligations.

Professional ethics The application of ethical principles to professional conduct and decision-making. For teachers, this includes obligations such as honesty, competence, fairness, confidentiality, and primary commitment to student welfare.

Professionalism The qualities, practices, and standards associated with being a professional, including specialized knowledge, ethical conduct, commitment to service, and continuous improvement of practice.

Professionalization The process by which an occupation develops the characteristics of a profession, including establishing standards for preparation, creating ethical codes, gaining public recognition, and achieving greater autonomy and status.

Reciprocity of effort A characteristic that distinguishes teaching from other learned professions. Unlike medicine or law where clients defer to professional judgment, teaching requires active participation from students in the learning process. Success depends on students' engagement with and application of knowledge.

Reflective professional communities School environments characterized by collaborative inquiry, critical thinking about practice, collegial interaction, and shared responsibility for student learning. These communities support teacher growth and retention better than isolated, individualistic work environments.

Registered apprenticeships Teacher preparation programs where candidates are paid employees of schools while learning to teach. Funded by the U.S. Department of Labor starting in 2022, these programs combine on-the-job training with coursework, providing livable wages without tuition costs to diversify the profession and address shortages.

Scripted curriculum Commercially prepared instructional materials that require teachers to read directly from a script with minimal deviation. Also called "teacher-proof" curriculum, these materials limit teachers' ability to adapt lessons to student needs, respond to questions spontaneously, or exercise professional judgment. More commonly used in high-poverty schools.

Social distance The degree of separation professionals maintain from the personal lives of their clients. Unlike physicians or lawyers who typically focus on specific issues, teachers cannot maintain social distance because effective teaching requires understanding and responding to students' life experiences.

Standards, assessment, and accountability movement Education reform efforts, particularly intensified after the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002, emphasizing standardized curricula, high-stakes testing, and holding schools and teachers accountable for student test scores. Critics argue this movement has reduced teacher autonomy and narrowed curriculum.

Status discrepancy The gap between the importance and complexity of teaching work and the professional recognition, compensation, and respect teachers actually receive. Teaching's status challenges are partly due to the large size of the profession limiting selectivity.

STEM fields Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics—academic and career areas experiencing particularly acute teacher shortages.

Strikes Work stoppages organized by unions to pressure employers to improve wages, benefits, or working conditions. Teacher strikes remain controversial, with 2018-2019 seeing significant walkouts that led to some pay increases, though gains were not sustained everywhere.

Teacher accountability Systems and policies designed to hold teachers responsible for student learning outcomes, typically measured through standardized test scores. Has led to evaluation systems incorporating student performance data and merit pay schemes.

Teacher residency programs Modeled after medical residencies, these programs require teacher candidates to spend a full academic year co-teaching with an experienced mentor in a high-needs classroom while simultaneously taking coursework. Most offer stipends and tuition support in exchange for a commitment to teach in the partnering district. These programs have shown success in diversifying the teaching force and improving retention.

Teacher turnover The rate at which teachers leave their positions, either by moving to other schools or leaving the profession entirely. High turnover particularly affects high-poverty schools and contributes to staffing instability.

Value-added modeling (VAM) A statistical approach that attempts to measure individual teachers' contributions to student learning by using students' past test scores to predict expected growth and comparing it to actual performance. Research has found significant challenges in reliably and accurately applying this model, including bias toward higher-achieving students and influence from other teachers' instruction.

Vernacular The everyday language spoken by ordinary people in a particular region or community, as opposed to formal literary or academic language. Historically relevant to debates about literacy instruction and cultural inclusion in education.