This glossary is also available as a Word file here.

Chapter 3: Social Class and Education

Glossary of Key Terms

Ability Grouping

The practice of dividing students within or between classes based on their perceived academic achievement levels. This approach is intended to provide appropriate instruction for individual students but has been criticized for reproducing social class inequalities and limiting opportunities for students placed in lower groups. Can occur as early as preschool and includes various forms such as within-class grouping and between-class grouping.

Capitalism

An economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. In this system, decisions regarding investment, production, and distribution are determined by private owners in competitive markets rather than through central planning. The chapter discusses how capitalism created greater class consciousness and shaped educational policies.

Charter Schools

Publicly funded schools that operate under a legislative contract (or charter) with a state, district, or other entity. These schools enjoy greater freedom from certain state or local regulations but must meet accountability standards specified in their charter. As of 2021, about 7,800 charter schools served 3.7 million students in the United States.

Class Consciousness

An awareness of one's socio-economic standing in society and recognition of shared economic and political interests with others in the same social class. The term emerged prominently during the Great Depression when workers became more aware of their economic circumstances, though most still identified as middle class despite their actual economic positions.

Class Differences

The disparities between social classes in terms of income, wealth, educational attainment, occupational status, power, prestige, and lifestyle. These differences significantly influence how individuals are perceived, treated, and the opportunities available to them throughout life, including in education.

Cultural Capital

A concept developed by Pierre Bourdieu referring to non-financial social assets that promote social mobility. This includes education, command of language, and "taste" in artistic and cultural matters. Cultural capital helps individuals navigate social institutions and can be passed from parents to children, contributing to the reproduction of social class advantages.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)

Federal legislation passed in 1965 as part of President Lyndon B. Johnson's War on Poverty. The act significantly increased federal aid to schools in poverty-impacted areas through Title I funding. It has been reauthorized multiple times and represents a major federal commitment to addressing educational inequity, though its effectiveness has been debated.

Formal Education

Structured, systematic instruction typically provided by schools and other educational institutions, as opposed to informal learning that occurs through family, community, or personal experience. In colonial times, formal education was primarily available to wealthier classes, particularly among European colonists.

Great Equalizer

A term popularized by Horace Mann to describe the role he believed public education should play in American society. Mann argued that universal education could counteract the influence of social class and "obliterate factitious [class] distinctions in society," providing equal opportunities for all citizens regardless of their economic background.

Great Depression

The severe worldwide economic crisis lasting from 1929 to 1940, triggered by the stock market crash of October 29, 1929. During this period, the U.S. gross national product fell dramatically, unemployment soared to 24.9%, and school budgets suffered extreme cuts nationwide. The Depression heightened class consciousness and led to New Deal programs that supported education.

Haves and Have Nots

Terms often associated with Karl Marx's analysis of capitalist society, referring to the fundamental division between those who own the means of production (the bourgeoisie or "haves") and those who must sell their labor (the proletariat or "have nots"). This binary conception of class has been critiqued as oversimplified but remains influential in discussions of economic inequality.

Heredity Thesis

The claim, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, that heredity was the single most important factor determining human intelligence. This thesis was used to justify social inequalities and influenced educational policies, including intelligence testing and tracking. It has been thoroughly discredited by scientific research.

Horace Mann (1796-1859)

The most representative spokesman for the common schools movement in Massachusetts. Mann served as Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education and argued that universal public education could counteract socioeconomic divisions and prevent the domination of capital over labor. He is famous for calling education the "great equalizer."

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

German philosopher and economist whose theory of historical materialism argued that one must understand the "material forces of production" before understanding society's "superstructure" (institutions, political authority, class system). Marx was controversial for his revolutionary perspective that capitalism led to increased exploitation of the working class and inevitable conflict between owners (bourgeoisie) and workers (proletariat).

Max Weber (1864-1920)

German sociologist who investigated education's relationship to industrial society. Weber believed that industrialism produced a bureaucratized "rational" society, with schools functioning to teach particular "status cultures" and sort students through systems of examinations. He understood how mass schooling was used to bestow social mobility on some while denying it to others.

Meritocracy

A system in which advancement is based on individual ability and achievement rather than on social class, wealth, or other factors. The American Dream embodies the meritocratic ideal that anyone can succeed through hard work and talent. However, critics argue that actual social class continues to play a major role in determining opportunities, making true meritocracy more myth than reality.

Neoliberal Economic Policies

Economic policies emphasizing deregulation of businesses, reduction of publicly funded economic and social support services, privatization, and free market competition. These policies gained prominence beginning in the 1970s and have been associated with increasing wealth inequality and the decline of the American middle class.

Out-of-School Factors (OSFs)

Factors outside the formal school environment that significantly affect students' learning opportunities and educational outcomes. These include low birth weight, inadequate medical care, food insecurity, environmental pollutants, family stress, and neighborhood characteristics. OFSs are often directly related to social class and have received inadequate attention in many school reform movements.

Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002)

French sociologist who developed influential theories about how individual lives are shaped by various social and cultural "fields." Bourdieu introduced the concepts of symbolic capital and cultural capital to explain how class status depends on combinations of material possessions, social prestige, education, and cultural knowledge rather than economic factors alone.

Reconstructionists

Educational critics during the Great Depression who maintained that educators occupied strategic positions to help society break free from economic crisis. They argued that schools should teach young people to question the status quo and prepare them to change society as adults, with educators providing community leadership and working for radical reconstruction of the larger society.

School Choice

The idea that students should be able to select their school rather than being assigned to a neighborhood school based on residence. Forms of school choice include charter schools, magnet schools, vouchers, homeschooling, and various private school options. Proponents argue it increases quality through competition; critics warn it may exacerbate inequities.

Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 (GI Bill of Rights)

Landmark federal legislation that provided unprecedented levels of funding for millions of World War II veterans to pursue education upon their return. The GI Bill expended approximately $14.5 billion and stimulated an educational boom, though discriminatory practices limited access for Black veterans. It significantly contributed to middle-class growth in the post-war period.

Social Darwinism

The application of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection to human society, particularly associated with Herbert Spencer's concept of "survival of the fittest." This theory held that those with wealth, power, and prestige were naturally the "fittest" and that state intervention to help the poor disrupted the natural evolutionary process. It was used to justify social inequalities and oppose public education.

Socialism

An economic and political system in which the means of production are owned and controlled collectively or by the state rather than by private individuals. During the Great Depression, some observers looked to socialist remedies as alternatives to capitalism, though most Americans continued to prefer modified capitalism with greater government intervention and social safety nets.

Social Mobility

The movement of individuals or groups between different social class positions within a society. Education has long been viewed as a primary mechanism for upward social mobility in the United States, though research shows that social class background significantly constrains mobility opportunities regardless of educational attainment.

Success Literature

A genre of popular literature that emerged in the late 19th century, including Horatio Alger's "rags to riches" stories for adolescents and success manuals for adults. This literature promoted hard work, frugality, dependability, and character as pathways to success, typically advocating for middle-class respectability rather than great wealth. It reflected both the competitive nature of the era and the fluid nature of the American class system.

Survival of the Fittest

A phrase coined by Herbert Spencer (not Darwin) to describe his social application of evolutionary theory. In Spencer's view, competition among people naturally resulted in those who were "fittest" achieving wealth, power, and prestige, while the "unfit" (poor) should be allowed to die out. This concept was used to oppose government intervention in education and social services.

Symbolic Capital

A concept developed by Pierre Bourdieu referring to intangible assets such as social prestige, authority, honor, and reputation. Symbolic capital contributes to an individual's status and class position alongside economic capital (material wealth) and cultural capital (education and cultural knowledge). It can be accumulated, inherited, and converted into other forms of capital.

Tracking

A traditional practice in secondary education of assessing students and separating them into distinct curriculum programs such as general, vocational-technical, and college preparatory. Research has shown that track placement is heavily influenced by social class, race, gender, and ethnic origin rather than solely by ability. The practice was legally challenged and discouraged after the 1967 Hobson v. Hansen case but continues in modified forms through ability grouping.

Vouchers

A form of school choice in which parents or guardians receive public funds allocated for their children's education to attend private schools, including religious schools. Initially proposed by economist Milton Friedman based on free market principles, vouchers have been controversial. Supporters argue they provide educational freedom; critics contend they primarily benefit wealthier families and drain resources from public schools.

War on Poverty

A set of federal programs launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson's administration in the 1960s aimed at reducing poverty through various social interventions, including education. Educational components included the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), Adult Basic Education (ABE), Head Start, and financial aid for college students from low-income families. The initiative was based on the belief that education could help break the cycle of poverty.

Wraparound Services

Comprehensive supports for students that extend beyond traditional academic instruction to address various needs including behavioral, social, emotional, and health concerns. These services may include counseling, health care, family support, and community resources. Wraparound services are particularly important for students from low-income families who face additional challenges that affect their educational success.