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Chapter 4: Race, Ethnicity, and Education

Glossary of Key Terms

Acculturate - To adopt or adapt to Euro-American cultural ways. In the context of American Indian education, it referred to federal policies aimed at assimilating Indigenous peoples into mainstream American culture through education.

Afrocentric Education - An African-centered pedagogy that recognizes the place of indigenous languages and fosters individual ties and services to family, community, nation, race, and world. It emphasizes African history and "other ways of knowing" beyond Western thought, linking knowledge with cosmology, society, religion, medicine, and tradition to arrive at "intellectual wholeness."

Antiracist Pedagogy - An educational approach that focuses specifically on engaging students in critical dialogue about racism and white supremacy and becoming activists against racism in schools and beyond. It goes beyond simply celebrating diversity to actively challenging racial oppression.

Brown II - The 1955 Supreme Court decision (officially the second Brown v. Board of Education ruling) that addressed implementation of school desegregation. The Court ordered desegregation to occur with "all deliberate speed" but provided no specific deadlines or guidance, leaving implementation to federal district courts.

Brown v. the Board of Education (1954) - Landmark U.S. Supreme Court case that unanimously ruled that racial segregation in public schools violated the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause. The decision concluded that "separate but equal" has no place in public education, overturning the Plessy v. Ferguson precedent.

Carlisle Indian School - Established in 1879 by Richard Henry Pratt in Pennsylvania, this was the first Bureau of Indian Affairs off-reservation boarding school. Its purpose was to isolate American Indian students from tribal influences and "educate the Indian out of them" through forced assimilation, often resulting in cultural loss and trauma.

Castro, Sal - A Mexican American social studies teacher who organized the 1968 East Los Angeles student walkouts (also called the East L.A. Blowouts) to protest poor conditions in schools serving largely Mexican American students. The walkouts involved 15,000-20,000 students across multiple schools.

Chavis, John - A free Black man (1762/1763-1838) who led an extraordinary life as a soldier during the American Revolution, an ordained Presbyterian minister, and a respected teacher who taught both White and free Black students in Raleigh, North Carolina. He remained an active educator until his death in 1838 despite increasingly restrictive laws.

Critical Multicultural Education - A term used to emphasize that multicultural education must actively challenge racial oppression, not merely celebrate difference and reduce prejudice. It stresses the critical analysis of power relations as central to multicultural education.

Critical Race Theory (CRT) - A theoretical framework originating in critical legal studies that examines how racism continues to operate in society despite legal gains from the Civil Rights Movement. Key tenets include: racism is institutionalized and endemic in American life; U.S. society is based on property rights rather than human rights; and dominant ideologies like meritocracy and race neutrality mask how racism protects the power of dominant groups.

Culturally Biased Testing - Tests that reflect the cultural knowledge, experiences, and language of the dominant group (typically White middle-class culture), placing students from other cultural backgrounds at a disadvantage. Such testing was used to justify tracking Mexican American students into vocational programs rather than academic ones.

Culturally Relevant Pedagogy - A theoretical framework developed by Gloria Ladson-Billings that draws from critical pedagogy and critical race theory. It aims to enhance students' sociopolitical consciousness while also promoting academic achievement and cultural competence. It emphasizes a way of thinking rather than a prescribed set of teaching practices.

Deficit Ideology - The belief that certain cultural groups are inferior or deficient compared to the dominant culture. This perspective blames students or their cultures for low educational achievement rather than examining systemic inequities and the history of discriminatory schooling practices.

Desegregation - The process of ending the legal separation of students by race in schools. The term specifically refers to eliminating the legally mandated or enforced racial segregation that existed, particularly in the South, before the Brown v. Board of Education decision.

Double Taxation - The situation faced by Black citizens in the early 20th century where they not only paid their lawful taxes (which were often distributed inequitably, with Black schools receiving less than what Black taxpayers contributed) but also had to make additional private contributions to fund their own schools adequately.

Du Bois, W.E.B. - William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (1868-1963) was a leading Black intellectual, sociologist, and co-founder of the NAACP. He advocated for higher liberal education for the "Talented Tenth," voting rights, civic equality, and educational opportunity for all. He opposed Booker T. Washington's approach, arguing for more immediate social and political change.

Dual School Systems - The legally mandated separate school systems for Black and White students established in states following the Plessy v. Ferguson decision. While termed "separate but equal," these systems were never equal in terms of funding, resources, or quality.

Education Debt - A concept proposed by Gloria Ladson-Billings as an alternative to "achievement gap." It refers to the accumulated historical, economic, sociopolitical, and moral debts owed to Black and Latine students due to generations of separate and unequal schooling. This framing emphasizes how intergenerational effects have compounded to produce current educational disparities.

Equal Protection of the Law - A principle established by the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (ratified in 1868) that guarantees all persons born or naturalized in the United States the same legal rights and protections regardless of race. This principle was central to the Brown v. Board of Education decision.

Ethnic-Racial Socialization - The processes through which individuals learn about their ethnic and racial identities, as well as the values, norms, behaviors, and attitudes associated with their ethnic and racial groups. It encompasses the transmission of cultural knowledge, heritage, and experiences from one generation to the next within a particular ethnic or racial community.

Ethnic Studies - The interdisciplinary study of the experiences and contributions of people of color with emphasis on social movements and historical struggles, U.S. colonialism, the construction of race and racism, and critical examinations of knowledge and power.

Ethnicity - A characterization of people based on having a shared culture (e.g., language, food, music, dress, values, and beliefs) related to common ancestry and shared history. While related to race, ethnicity is a distinct concept focusing on cultural rather than physical characteristics.

Freedmen's Bureau - Officially the Bureau of Freedmen, Refugees, and Abandoned Lands, established by Congress in 1865. It was one of the most important educational developments during Reconstruction, founding and supporting numerous schools for Black students. The bureau also distributed food, regulated labor contracts, and ensured justice for formerly enslaved people.

Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 - Federal legislation that allowed the Bureau of Indian Affairs to make contracts with tribal governments to run their own schools, giving them greater control over curriculum, instruction, and school management. This marked a significant shift toward tribal sovereignty in education.

Intercultural Education Movement - A movement in the 1940s and 1950s that developed theories about instruction to promote interracial harmony and cooperation. Unlike the earlier ethnic studies movement, it focused less on issues of power and structural inequality and was led primarily by White social scientists rather than people of color.

Jim Crow - A term denoting the harsh laws, policies, and attitudes of white supremacy that redefined the place of Black people in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. During this era, racial segregation that was formerly custom became required by law, particularly in the South.

Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver, Colorado (1973) - A U.S. Supreme Court case that held Hispanic students in Denver experienced difficulties similar to African American students because both faced educational inequalities compared to White students. The Court ruled the entire Denver school district must be desegregated because authorities had historically manipulated policies to maintain segregation.

Korematsu, Fred - A Japanese American citizen (1919-2005) who challenged the constitutionality of President Roosevelt's order forcing Japanese Americans into internment camps during World War II. Although the Supreme Court initially ruled against him, the decision was later overturned. He successfully lobbied for reparations, and President Clinton awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1998.

Magnet School - A public school that offers a special curriculum capable of attracting substantial numbers of students of different racial backgrounds in order to desegregate racially isolated schools or reduce racial isolation in a district. These schools have been one successful approach to promoting school integration.

Massive Resistance - A campaign launched by political leaders in Virginia and other Southern states to circumvent the Brown v. Board of Education decision through state legislation to close any public schools that desegregated. The most extreme example was Prince Edward County, Virginia, which closed its entire public school system for five years.

Model Minority Myth - The commonly held stereotype that Asian Americans are smarter, more polite, or otherwise more capable students than those from other ethnic-racial backgrounds. Though seemingly positive, this stereotype ignores individuality and diversity within Asian American groups, obscures their history of discrimination, and reinforces harmful stereotypes like the "perpetual foreigner" image.

Multicultural Education - An educational movement beginning in the 1970s that questioned Eurocentric curriculum and pushed for comprehensive reforms to the entire institution of schooling, including curriculum, tracking, testing, school funding formulas, discriminatory discipline practices, and hiring. Leaders included James Banks, Carl Grant, Christine Sleeter, Geneva Gay, and Sonia Nieto.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) - A civil rights organization co-founded by W.E.B. Du Bois and others in 1910. The NAACP led the legal challenge against school segregation, culminating in the Brown v. Board of Education decision, and has continued to advocate for racial justice and equality.

New South - An ideology that emerged in the late 1880s and early 1890s, composed of northern-style industrial capitalism and social reform along with a reaffirmation of White political power. This period saw the rise of Jim Crow segregation despite promises of economic prosperity.

Paternalistic - An attitude or approach that treats people as if they are incapable of making their own decisions or caring for themselves, similar to how a parent treats a child. Samuel Chapman Armstrong's approach to Black education at Hampton Institute was described as paternalistic, believing Black people needed guidance in virtues like industriousness and thrift.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) - A U.S. Supreme Court case that gave constitutional approval for state laws requiring racial segregation, establishing the "separate but equal" doctrine. This decision provided legal cover for racial segregation throughout the country until it was overturned by Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.

Race - The social construction and categorization of people based on perceived shared physical traits that result in the maintenance of a sociopolitical hierarchy. There is no biological basis for racial categories; race is a social construct created by people, not an objective or inherent characteristic.

Racialization - The process by which racial meanings are assigned to people, practices, or groups that were not previously categorized by race. It involves the creation and maintenance of racial categories and hierarchies.

Racism - A system of advantage based on race, or the belief that race is a primary determinant of basic human characteristics and capabilities. As a system, it is characterized by unequal access to better schools, housing, jobs, health care, financial security, and social status. Racism is institutionalized and endemic in American life, upheld by cultural, legal, and psychological forces.

Reconstruction - The period from 1865 to 1877 following the Civil War when Congress enacted laws aimed at rebuilding the South and integrating formerly enslaved people into society. During this time, African Americans made significant political and educational gains, including the establishment of statewide public school systems across the South.

Resegregation - The process of formerly desegregated schools undergoing demographic changes that resulted in a predominance of racial and ethnic minorities. This increased noticeably during the 1980s and 1990s as court and legislative decisions weakened prior desegregation efforts, and White families moved to suburbs or private schools.

Restorative Justice - A disciplinary approach grounded in the belief that punitive measures do little to repair harm or relationships. Restorative practices often begin with conversation circles where all involved share their perspectives and understanding of an incident, with the goal of healing and preventing future harm rather than simply punishing.

School District Secession - The political process in which new, small school districts are carved out of existing districts to serve higher rates of affluent and White residents than the existing district. This phenomenon contributes to both school and residential segregation and is most common in Southern states.

Segregation - The enforced separation of different racial groups, particularly in public facilities like schools. In education, this refers to the practice of maintaining separate schools for Black and White students, which was legally mandated in many states until the Brown v. Board of Education decision.

Separate but Equal - The doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) that allowed states to maintain racially segregated facilities as long as they were theoretically equal. In practice, facilities for Black Americans, especially schools, were never equal to those for White Americans in terms of funding, resources, or quality.

Sequoyah - A Cherokee man (ca. 1770-ca. 1840) who developed a writing system (syllabary) of 86 symbols for the Cherokee language, officially adopted in 1821. His work enabled Cherokee literacy and led to the translation of the Bible, creation of a Cherokee constitution, and publication of the newspaper Cherokee Phoenix. He is commemorated with a statue in the U.S. Capitol.

Sharecropping - A labor system in the post-Civil War South where formerly enslaved people worked on plantations for a small share of the harvest rather than wages. This system, sometimes called "slavery by another name," perpetuated poverty and limited economic opportunities for Black southerners.

Social Construct - Something created and maintained by society rather than occurring naturally or being objectively true. Race is a social construct—a categorization system created by people that has no biological basis but has real social, economic, and political consequences.

Talented Tenth - W.E.B. Du Bois's term for the most able and educated Black Americans who would receive higher liberal education and provide much-needed leadership to extend democracy and promote racial solidarity. Du Bois later became disillusioned with this concept when these graduates pursued self-interest rather than collective advancement.

Tape v. Hurley (1885) - A California State Supreme Court case in which the court ruled that Chinese children could not be excluded from public schools. However, the San Francisco school board evaded this decision by establishing a segregated Oriental Public School, illustrating how legal victories could be undermined by discriminatory implementation.

Tenant Farming - A labor system in the post-Civil War South where formerly enslaved people could live on land owned by others but had to pay rent, in addition to often receiving a share of crops. Like sharecropping, this system perpetuated poverty and economic dependence.

Tuskegee Institute - Now Tuskegee University, this institution was founded in Alabama and led by Booker T. Washington from its establishment until his death in 1915. Washington expanded it from a teacher training school to include agriculture, mechanics and trades, domestic science, nursing, music, and Bible training, making it arguably the most influential Black institution of its time.

Washington, Booker T. - Born enslaved in 1856, Booker Taliafero Washington became the head of Tuskegee Institute and a prominent Black educator. He emphasized economic self-sufficiency and industrial education over immediate demands for political and social equality. His accommodationist approach drew criticism from leaders like W.E.B. Du Bois but helped him build Tuskegee into an influential institution.

White Flight - The phenomenon of White families moving from cities to suburbs or transferring children from public to private schools in response to school desegregation efforts. This contributed to the resegregation of urban schools and the creation of a new dual education system based on both race and class.

White Privilege - The advantages and benefits that White people receive in a racist society, even when they may personally oppose racism or be disadvantaged in other ways (such as by class, gender, or disability). It includes better access to high-quality schools, higher education, health care, and life expectancy.

Woodson, Carter G. - A historian and educator (1875-1950) who wrote The Mis-Education of the Negro (1933) and was among the first to call for greater inclusion of Black history in school curriculum. He argued that teaching only European history caused emotional and psychological distress for Black children. Woodson also started Negro History Week, which later evolved into African American History Month.